The Role of Social Media in Shaping the 2024 Indian General Election

General elections were held in India from 19 April to 1 June 2024 in seven phases, to elect all 543 members of the Lok Sabha. Votes were counted and the result was declared on 4 June to form the 18th Lok Sabha. The legislative assembly elections in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Odisha, and Sikkim were held simultaneously with the general election, along with the by-elections for 25 constituencies in 12 legislative assemblies.

More than 968 million people out of a population of 1.4 billion people were eligible to vote, equivalent to 70 percent of the total population. 642 million voters participated in the election and 312 million of them were women, making it the highest ever participation by women voters. This was the largest-ever election in history, surpassing the previous election, and lasted 44 days, second only to the 1951–52 Indian general election.

Incumbent prime minister Narendra Modi, who completed a second term, ran for a third consecutive term after his Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) had enjoyed an absolute majority—a minimum of 272 seats—in the 2019 and 2014 elections. The primary opposition was the Indian National Developmental Inclusive Alliance (INDIA), a coalition formed by the Indian National Congress (INC) and many regional parties in 2023. The election was criticised for lack of action on hate speeches by Modi’s BJP, reported Electronic Voting Machine (EVM) malfunctioning, and alleged suppression of political opponents of the BJP.

Opinion surveys of mainstream media outlets projected a decisive victory for the BJP and its coalition, the National Democratic Alliance (NDA). However, the BJP won 240 seats, down from the 303 seats it had secured in 2019, and lost its singular majority in the Lok Sabha, whereas the overall NDA secured 293 of the house’s 543 seats. The INDIA coalition outperformed expectations, securing 234 seats, 99 of which were won by the Congress, garnering the party the Official Opposition status for the first time in 10 years. By 5 June, Modi confirmed the support of 303 MPs, including three MPs from minor parties and ten other independent MPs, to Droupadi Murmu, the 15th President of India. This marked Modi’s third term as Prime Minister and his first time heading a coalition government, with the Telugu Desam Party of Andhra Pradesh and Janata Dal (United) of Bihar emerging as two main allies, whose confidence is crucial for the government’s term.

Background

Contemporary politics and previous elections

India has a multi-party system with two major parties, namely the Bharatiya Janata Party and the Indian National Congress, that dominate politics at the national level. The BJP has governed the country with Narendra Modi at the helm since 2014. The tenure of the 17th Lok Sabha is scheduled to end on 16 June 2024. The previous general election was held in April–May 2019, after which the National Democratic Alliance, led by the BJP, formed the union government, with Modi continuing as Prime Minister. The Indian National Developmental Inclusive Alliance, comprising of 26 opposition parties, was formed in 2023 to contest the BJP in the 2024 Lok Sabha elections.

Electoral system

Article 83 of the Constitution of India requires elections to the Lok Sabha to be held once every five years. All 543 elected MPs are elected from single-member constituencies using first-past-the-post voting. The 104th amendment to the constitution abolished the two seats that were reserved for the Anglo-Indian community.

543 seats in the Lok Sabha
272 seats needed for a majority

Opinion pollsRegistered968,821,926(⬆️ 6.24%)Turnout66.33% (⬇️ 1.07%)

	First party	Second party
Leader	Narendra Modi	Mallikarjun Kharge
Party	BJP	INC
Alliance	NDA	INDIA
Leader since	12 September 2013	26 October 2022
Leader’s seat	Varanasi	Karnataka (Rajya Sabha)
Last election	37.36%, 303 seats	19.49%, 52 seats
Seats won	240	99
Seat change	⬇️ 63	⬆️ 47
Popular vote	235,973,935	136,759,064
Percentage	36.56%	21.19%
Swing	⬇️0.8pp	⬆️ 1.7pp
Alliance seats	293	234

Eligible voters must be Indian citizens, 18 years or older, ordinary residents of the polling area of the constituency and registered to vote (name included in the electoral rolls), possess a valid voter identification card issued by the Election Commission of India or equivalent. Some people convicted of electoral or other offenses are barred from voting. Indians holding foreign citizenship are also barred from voting. There is no postal or online absentee voting in India; members of the Indian diaspora are required to travel back to their home constituencies in order to cast a ballot.

For the 2024 election, 968 million people are eligible to vote, an increase of about 150 million people from the 2019 election. In Arunachal Pradesh, a polling station will be set up for the only registered voter in the village of Malogam, due to electoral laws that stipulate voting booths to be placed within two kilometres (1.2 mi) from all settlements. A polling station was also set up inside the Gir Forest in Gujarat to cater for a singular voter, a priest at a Hindu temple. Polling stations will also be set up inside a wildlife sanctuary in Kerala and in a shipping container in Gujarat, as well as in 320 relief camps hosting some 59,000 people displaced during interethnic violence in Manipur.

In March 2024, the Supreme Court of India rejected a petition by the Congress Party to end the usage of electronic voting machines and revert to paper ballots and manual counting, which was the system used in elections until the late 1990s, with the party citing risks of electoral fraud. Nearly 5.5 million electronic voting machines were to be utilized for more than one million polling stations, while 15 million election workers and security personnel were to be tasked with managing the conduct of the election.

For the first time, the Election Commission of India allowed voters with disabilities and those over the age of 85 to cast ballots from their homes due to concerns over high temperatures. In Telangana, voting in some precincts was extended by a later hour to allow voters to come at a more convenient time.

Planning

Key processes during a Lok Sabha election involve monitoring campaign expenditure, preventing the circulation of illicit goods, and ensuring adherence to the Model Code of Conduct. In the final 48 hours before voting, campaigns are ended, and measures are implemented to maintain order and prevent disruptions. On polling day, strict rules are enforced to prevent undue influence, ensuring a smooth and secure election process. Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs) are sealed and stored with tight security measures, while Booth Level Officers assist voters throughout the process.

Chief Election Commissioner Rajiv Kumar announced the 2024 General Elections schedule for Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assemblies during a press conference

Schedule

The election schedule for the 18th Lok Sabha was announced by the Election Commission of India on 16 March 2024, and with it the Model Code of Conduct came into effect. The tenure of the 17th Lok Sabha is scheduled to end on 16 June 2024.

Date summary

Seat Summary

Parties and alliances

The politics of India has become increasingly bipolar in the run-up to the 2024 Indian general elections with two major alliances emerging; the incumbent NDA (National Democratic Alliance) and the opposition INDIA (Indian National Developmental Inclusive Alliance). Six national parties are contesting the 2024 Indian general elections: BJP (Bharatiya Janata Party), INC (Indian National Congress), CPI(M) (Communist Party of India (Marxist)), BSP (Bahujan Samaj Party), NPP (National People’s Party) and AAP (Aam Aadmi Party) with all except the BSP being a part of one of the two alliances.

National Democratic Alliance (NDA)

The National Democratic Alliance, abbreviated as NDA (IAST: Rāṣṭrīya Janatāntrik Gaṭhabandhan) is a big tent, mostly centre-right to right-wing political alliance led by the Bharatiya Janata Party.

Indian National Developmental Inclusive Alliance (INDIA)

The Indian National Developmental Inclusive Alliance, abbreviated as INDIA (IAST: Bhāratīya Rāṣṭrīya Vikāsaśīla Samāveśī Gaṭhabaṃdhana) is a big-tent, mostly centre-left to left-wing bloc of opposition parties.

In the run up to the general election numerous opposition parties met to form a new opposition alliance to defeat the ruling Bharatiya Janata Party. After numerous talks 26 political parties came together to form the Indian National Developmental Inclusive Alliance (INDIA).

Other notable parties and alliances

Bahujan Samaj Party leader Mayawati announced that her party will contest the election on its own in most states and ally with other non-BJP, non-Congress parties in Telangana and Haryana.

On 11 May 2023, Biju Janata Dal leader and Chief Minister of Odisha Naveen Patnaik said that his party will go alone for the Lok Sabha polls in Odisha.

Candidates

The prime ministerial candidate for the 2024 general election of the NDA alliance is the incumbent Prime Minister Narendra Modi. The prime ministerial candidate of the INDIA bloc will be decided after the 2024 polls.

Bharatiya Janata Party

The BJP announced its first list of 195 candidates on 2 March 2024 and the second list of 72 candidates was published in 13 March, while the third list of nine candidates was announced on 21 March. The fourth list of 15 candidates was released on 22 March, followed by the declaration of fifth list of 111 candidates on 24 March and the sixth list of three candidates on 26 March. The seventh list of two candidates was announced on 27 March and the eighth list of eleven candidates was published on 30 March, while the ninth list of just one candidate was released on 31 March. The tenth list, comprising nine candidates, was released on 10 April and the eleventh list, comprising one candidate, was released on 11 April, followed by the announcement of twelfth list of seven candidates on 16 April. The thirteenth, fourteenth and fifteenth lists, each comprising of one candidate, were published on 18 April, 23 April and 27 April respectively. The sixteenth list consisting of one candidate of Birbhum constituency was released on 1 May, after previous candidate’s nomination papers were rejected by the ECI officials and the seventeenth list of two candidates was published on 2 May, while the eighteenth list of one candidate was declared on 3 May. The nineteenth list of three candidates was declared on 8 May, while the twentieth list of one candidate was released on 10 May.

For the first time since 1996, the BJP did not field candidates in the Kashmir division, with analysts and opposition politicians attributing it to popular backlash over the BJP government’s revocation of Jammu and Kashmir’s autonomy enshrined under Article 370 of the Indian Constitution in 2019.

Indian National Congress

The Indian National Congress released its first list of 39 candidates on 8 March 2024 and the second list of 43 candidates was published on 13 March, while the third list of 56 candidates was announced on 22 March. The fourth list of 46 candidates was published on 23 March and the fifth list of three candidates was released on 24 March, while the sixth list of five candidates was announced on 25 March. The seventh list of five candidates was published on 26 March, while the eighth list of 14 candidates was announced on 27 March and the ninth list of five candidates was released on 29 March. The tenth list of two candidates was published on 1 April and the eleventh list of 17 candidates was announced on 2 April, while the twelfth list of three candidates was released on 4 April. The thirteenth list of six candidates was announced on 6 April, while the fourteenth list of six more candidates was declared on 9 April, followed by the fifteenth list of two candidates on 10 April. The sixteenth list of 16 candidates was announced on 13 April, followed by the declaration of seventeenth list of ten candidates on 14 April, while the eighteenth list of three candidates was published on 16 April. The nineteenth list of four candidates was announced on 20 April, while the twentieth list of 11 candidates was published on 21 April and the twenty-first list of seven candidates was declared on 23 April. The twenty-second list of three candidates was published on 24 April and the twenty-third list of eight candidates was announced on 25 April, while the twenty-fourth list of two candidates was declared on 28 April. The twenty-fifth list of four candidates was published on 30 April and the twenty-sixth list of two candidates was announced on 3 May, while the twenty-seventh list of one candidate, the replacement candidate for Puri constituency was announced on 5 May, after the previous candidate withdrew her candidature citing a lack of funding from the party for her election campaign. The twenty-eighth list of one candidate was announced on 7 May.

Surveys and polls

Opinion polls

Vote share projections

Voting

• The Phase 1 voting was conducted on 19 April 2024. Re-polling in 11 polling stations of Inner Manipur was held on 22 April due to violence. Re-polling was conducted for eight polling stations in Arunachal Pradesh on 24 April due to reports of violence and EVM damage.
• The Phase 2 voting was conducted on 26 April 2024. Re-polling was conducted on 29 April for a polling station in Chamarajanagar due to violence and EVM damage and for six polling stations in Outer Manipur on 30 April due to violence, EVM damage and forced voting allegedly carried out by unidentified armed individuals. Re-polling was also conducted for a polling station in Ajmer on 2 May 2024 due to misplaced voters’ register.

• The Phase 3 voting was conducted on 7 May 2024. The voter turnout for the third phase of Lok Sabha elections reached 65.68%. In this phase, 17.24 crore (172,400,000) citizens, comprising 8.85 crore (88,500,000) men and 8.39 crore (83,900,000) women, were eligible to cast their votes.
• The Phase 4 voting was conducted on 13 May 2024, where 96 constituencies voted.
• The Phase 5 voting was conducted on 20 May 2024, where 49 constituencies voted.
• The Phase 6 voting was conducted on 25 May 2024, where 58 constituencies voted.
• The Phase 7 voting was conducted on 1 June 2024, where 57 constituencies voted. Repolling at one booth each in the Barasat and Mathurapur constituencies of West Bengal were held on 3 June due to violence.

Misinformation

Narendra Modi, on 21 April during an election campaign rally in Rajasthan, falsely claimed that former Prime Minister Manmohan Singh once said “Muslims have the first right on the country’s resources”. However, Singh’s speech also mentioned backward communities, including scheduled castes, scheduled tribes, Other Backward Classes, women, children, and minorities. Modi falsely claimed that Rahul Gandhi had not named Gautam Adani and Mukesh Ambani throughout the elections. Gandhi had mentioned Adani and Ambani about 25 times.

On social media platform X, certain accounts circulated a manipulated video of Home Minister Amit Shah, who accused the opposition of tampering with the video, leading to the registration of an FIR and a summons being issued to Telangana’s Chief Minister Revanth Reddy. A member of the Congress party and a member of the Aam Aadmi Party were arrested in connection with the incident. In April 2024 videos went viral which showed Bollywood actors Aamir Khan and Ranveer Singh campaigning for the Congress party. The two said the videos were done without their consent and were deepfakes. The BJP was also accused by the opposition of doctoring videos.

On 3 May, Arun Reddy, the head of the Congress Party’s social media division, was arrested on suspicion of producing a doctored video of Amit Shah giving a campaign speech promising to end reservations for backward communities. The Congress Party denied Reddy’s involvement and accused the BJP of cracking down on its rivals during the election.

On 30 May, OpenAI released a report which said that the Israeli firm STOIC was involved in generating comments that focused on India, criticized the BJP and praised the Congress party through the usage of OpenAI’s models. The report noted that the comments received ‘little if any’ engagement from other users and rated the impact as Category 2, the second-lowest lowest ranking on the 6-point Breakout Scale.

On 3 June, Time noted throughout the elections, associates and supporters of the BJP circulated fake news in order to discredit its opponents and spread hatred against religious minorities.

Results

Following the first round, the BJP won its first seat after Mukesh Dalal, its candidate for Surat constituency in Gujarat, was elected unopposed following rejection and withdrawal of other candidates. No voting was held in the constituency, as the ECI had certified the results two weeks prior due to the absence of rival candidates.